Organizational Communication
组织传播学
背景
Organizational Communication, 4th Edition, Katherine Miller
中译本：组织传播，第二版，华夏出版社
纲要
基本学派 Founding Approaches: Unitary frame
古典学派 Classical
人际关系学派 Human Relationship
人力资源学派 Human Resource
现代学派 Contemporary Approaches: Pluralist and Radical frame
系统学派 Systems
文化学派 Culture
批判学派 Critical
持续过程 Enduring Processes
社会化过程 Assimilation
决策过程 Decision Making
冲突管理过程 Conflict Management
新兴过程 Emerging Processes
压力和社会支持过程 Emotion
多元化管理过程 Diversity
传播技术过程 Technologies
Part A Founding Approaches
第一部分 基本学派
Classical Approaches
第一章 古典学派
概念
从“员工工作”的角度看待员工
概念导入
Metaphor 隐喻
Machine 组织的机械隐喻
Specialization 专业化
Standardization标准化
Predictable 可预测性
Fayol 古典管理理论Classical Management
规范性理论，开出药方，而非描述性或解释性
Elements 管理要素
Planning
Organizing
Commanding
Coordination
Control
Principles 管理原则
Structure 组织结构原则 Gangplank Faylor’s Bridge
等级链 / 统一命令 / 劳动分工 / 秩序 / 控制幅度
Power 组织权力原则
组织集权 / 权力和责任 / 纪律
Reward 组织报酬原则
人员报酬 / 公平 / 任用稳定：过度任用稳定降低效率
Attitude 组织态度原则
个人利益服从整体利益 / 自发性 / 团队精神
Max Weber 官僚理论 Bureaucracy
学术性理论，Ideal type
Clearly defined hierarchy
Division of labor 劳动分工
Centralization of decision making and power
Closed system
Importance of Rules
Function of the authority
Traditional (legitimate)
Charismatic
Rational-legal
Taylor 科学管理理论 Scientific management
规范性理论，从微观角度探讨组织运作
rate busters高产工人 VS  systematic soldiering群体磨洋工  & uneven work参差不齐工作量
Best way to do
Proper selection of workers
Training workers: time and motion studies
Inherent difference between management and workers
Today’s classical theory
Scalar chain, unity of command, span of control
Cross-functional team, matrixing of task
One best way is still to be found
Human Relations Approaches
第二章  人际关系学派
概念
从“员工感觉”的角度看待员工
概念导入
Hawthorne studies & Hawthorne effect
social presence
job enrichment
组织的家庭隐喻：需要得到满足和有机会实现自我时才能发展
Maslow需求理论 Hierarchy of Needs Theory
一般性理论
Physiological needs 生理
Safety 安全
Affiliation 归属
Esteem 自尊
Self actualization 自我实现
Hierarchy of prepotency 优先层级
Herzberg激励－保健理论 Motivation-Hygiene Theory
可运用的理论
Motivation present: Happy
Hygiene present: Not Unhappy
McGregor X-Y理论
着眼于对待员工的过程
X理论
管理者主张
管理负责按照经济利益组织生产性要素
控制动员员工
管理者的缺失，会导致员工消极
人性假设
人天生懒惰
缺乏野心，不愿负责，愿意受引导
天生自我中心，无视组织
抵制变革
容易受骗
Y理论的假设
工作和游戏一样自然
控制和惩罚不是唯一方法，员工有自我引导自我控制的愿望
自我实现需要的满足
人会学会主动寻求责任
较为丰富的想象力、判断力和创造力普遍存在
人的智慧只得到了部分开发
The Human Relations Approach in Organizations Today
Impact on Managerial Attitudes
Interchangeable cogs?
Impact on Job Design
Job enrichment
Human Resources Approaches
第三章 人力资源学派
概念
把员工视为智力和体力的贡献者，而非能对组织目标有所贡献的资产（人际关系学派）
是人际关系学派的一种延伸，在动机和方式研究上与前者有所不同
人际关系学派缺乏实证的支持，工作满足度真得能提升生产效率吗？（人际关系学派的结论）
概念导入
虚伪性参与
创新传播 
Why Human Resources Approach?
Human Relations Principles Don’t Work
Satisfaction of Higher-order Needs → Work satisfaction → motivation → (?) productivity
Misuse of  Human Relations Principles
Pseudo-participation 虚伪性参与
Human resources are:
Combination of classical and human relations
Resources = Changing non-labor human power into productivity
Blake and Moutons’ Managerial Grid
Concern for people and production
Team management 团队型
Authority-compliance 权威－服从型
Country club 乡村俱乐部型
Impoverished 贫乏型
Middle-of-the-road 中庸型
Likert’s System IV
Exploitive authoritative org. 专权命令式
Benevolent authoritative org. 温和命令式
Consultative org. 协商式
Participative org. 参与式
Linking pin 联结枢纽
Ouch’s Theory Z
Adoption of Japanese Management
Emphasize the importance of developing and nurturing the human resource
Long-term (not lifelong) employment 长期雇佣
Develop company-specific skill 强化训练与开发
Collective decision making 集体主义
Communication in Human Resources Organizations
Team Management
Japanese management systems：集体主义
The Scanlon plan: 参与、责任、奖赏
Total Quality Management：员工＝内部客户
关于本章的Case in point
Invent
Reframing the situation
Inventors not as people who are good at solving problems BUT people who are good at finding problems that no one else sees.
Part B Contemporary Approaches
第二部分 现代学派
Systems  Approaches
第四章 系统学派
Origins of Systems Approaches
Origins:  Biology and Engineering
The Metaphor: The Living Organism
Contributions: Open system, exchange
系统成分 Systems Components
Hierarchical Ordering (vs. classical bureaucracy?) 等级秩序
Interdependence 互相依存
Permeability 可渗透性
系统过程 System Processes
Input → Throughput → Output
Exchange
Feedback
Corrective feedback
Negative feedback
系统属性 System Properties
Open system：
Holism/Wholeness
Equifinality 殊途同归
Negative Entropy 负墒
Requisite Variety 必要品种
控制系统论 Wiener’s Cybernetic Systems Theory
System Goal: Sale’s target
System target: Salesman’s level
System mechanisms 系统机制
System feedback
系统组织论 Karl Weick’s Theory of Organizing
Communication reduces equivocality
Ecological change
Enactment
Selection
Retention
组织系统研究方法 A Systems Methodology
Communication Network Analysis
Monge and Eisenberg
Case analysis
网络分析 Network Analysis
Info. Flow analysis
Scopes
Formal/Positional Networks
Informal/Social Networks
Anchor defines network scope
All networks consist of members and their links
Properties
Network Content
Instrumental （货物服务）
Social （信息）
Impression management （影响或控制）
Value Expressive （情感表达）
Network Modes
Network Density
Actual links / All possible links
网络分析 （续） Network Analysis
Properties of Links
Link Strength 强度
Link Symmetry 对称性: power, status, relational
Link Multiplexity 多样性: topic variety
Network Roles
Isolate 孤立者
Isolate dyad
Bridge 桥梁
Liaison 联络者
Group members
网络分析的作用
Centralization VS decentralization
Adoption of innovation
Job satisfaction
Organizational commitment
Mental health
Cultural  Approaches
第五章 文化学派
沙因文化模型 Schein’s Model of Culture
A Definition of Culture
group phenomenon (>3)
patterns of basic assumptions
emergent and developmental processes
can be learned through socialization
A Model of Culture (Onion Model 洋葱模型)
Origin: Anthropology
Level I: Artifacts and Creations
Level II: Espoused Values: mosaic of beliefs how to do
Individuals’ values are not all equal
Validity of the values
Level III: Basic Assumptions
Nature of reality and truth
Nature of time
Nature of space
Nature of human nature
Nature of human activity
Nature of human relationships
Unit of Analysis for Culture
National
International Trade/Profession
Ethnic Culture (borderless)
Organizational Culture
subcultures—systems perspective
Multi-national company’s culture
规范性研究 Prescriptive
Static (has) 组织有文化
Should be
Boundary
Authoritative
Naive Observation
Strong culture (Deal & Kennedy)& Excellent culture (Peters & Waterman)
解释性研究 Descriptive
Dynamic (becomes and will be) 组织是文化
Can be--if managed well
Fuzzier boundaries
Scholarly
Systematic Inquiry
Complicated, emergent, Not unitary, ambiguous (不明确的）
The Making of Organizational Culture
Organization Origin
Hiring
Leadership
Member Impact
Organizational Change
Policy, New Leadership, Relocation . . .
Merger & Acquisition
Methods for Investigating Organizational Culture
Ethnography 人种学 qualitative methods
Grounded theory
Final Products
realist tale 现实主义者的故事
confessional tale 告白式的故事
impressionist tale 印象主义者的故事
Critical tale 批判的故事
Social Sciences
Participant observation
Non-participant observation
Interview
Critical  Approaches
第六章 批判学派
意识型态区别 Ideological difference among approaches
Central Propositions
Social structures and processes lead to fundamental imbalances of power 不平等
The imbalances lead to alienation and oppression for certain social classes 疏远和压迫
Theorist should uncover the imbalances, educate the oppressed classes, and liberate/emancipate the classes 解放
Pervasiveness of Power
Traditional:
Stable entity possessed by group
Symbolic:
Power in relationships and communication
Radical:
In deep structure
Control of modes and means of production
Modes: economic conditions
Means: the actual work process
Control of gender issues
Control of organization discourse
Hegemony 霸权
Part C Enduring Processes
第三部分 持续过程
一直在发生的过程
Assimilation Processes
第九章 社会化过程
社会化过程模式 Phases of socialization
When socialization?
Anticipatory phase 预期
Learning a occupation and organization
Encounter phase 磨合
Reality shock
Metamorphosis phase 转变
Outsider to insider
社会化内涵模式 Content of socialization
What socialization?
Role-related info.
Formally, informally, general, personalized
Organization culture
More complex
Rely on observation of behavior and artifacts to draw inferences about cultural values and assumptions
同化传播过程 communication processes during assimilation
Interview c书p124 e书p154
Recruiting and screening tool
Info.-gathering tool
Tool for socialization
Newcomer info-seeking tactics
Proactive 准主动 Miller & Jablin’s model
Overt question 直接问题
Indirect question 间接问题
Third parties 第三方
Testing limits 试探底线
Disguising conversation 掩饰性谈话
Observing 观察
Surveillance 推断
Role-development processes
Graen’s Leader-member exchange theory
Role-taking
Role-making
Role routinization
In-group
Out-group
社会化的各学派评述 Approaches to the socialization
See e书 P.164 c书 P.131
Classical: 减少离职率
H. Relationships: 提升满意度
H. Resource: 提升贡献度
System: 组织外到组织内的转化
Culture: 新员工了解组织
Critical: 社会化是发展维持霸权；个人化是解放
Decision Making Processes
第九章 决策过程
决策类型 Types of Decisions
Expensive VS Inexpensive
Consequential VS Inconsequential
理性决策模型 Rational Models of Decision Making
理性决策模型
Goal: to find the optimal solution
 the very very best decision
Generic Model - Dewey’s reflective method
一般模式(沉思法）
Normative method – Nutt
标准法
一般模式 沉思法 Generic Model – reflective method
Defining the problems
Establishing criteria
Generate alternatives
Evaluate alternatives
Select the best solution

Conditions: Should have some knowledge on the Decision Making PROBLEMS
标准法 Normative Method
Formulation 阐述问题
Concept Development 概念建立
Detailing 仔细论证
Evaluation 评估
Implementation 实施

Conditions: time-consuming is the big cost. Asking others’ opinion is a time-consuming
替代方案 Alternative Models – March & Simon
Optimizing VS Satisficing
最优化 VS 满意
Bounded Rationality
有限理性
3 alternatives
三种替代方法 3 alternatives
Intuition － 直觉
Analogy － 类推
Garbage Can － 垃圾桶
团队决策类型 Types of Decision Making Groups
Task force 任务型
Cross-sectional project team 跨部门型
Problems solving teams (consulting) 内部顾问型
Standing committee
Board of directors
Pseudo-decision making body
各阶层的决策 Power levels & Decision making
Bottom-level: operation
Mid-level: operation, a little strategy
Top-level: strategy
Mixed-level: anything relevant and important to all.
团队行为 Group behaviors
Group-Decision rule based:
Authority rule
Minority coalition （少数合并同类项？）
Majority rule: simple (50%) & real (2/3)
Consensus: persuade to agree
Unanimity
Group roles
Task roles
Self-centered roles
团队角色 Group roles
Task roles
Initiator
Info. seeker
Energizer (let’s move) : 兴奋剂
Orienter (keep on track)
Encourager
Harmonizer: 协调者
Comedian： 喜剧演员
Gatekeeper：把关人
Follower
Self-centered roles
Blocker
Aggressor：攻击者
Dominator：支配者
Special interest pleader：特殊人物
小团队决策 Small Group Decision Making
Descriptive models
Ineffective small-group decision making
Effective small-group decision making
描述性模式 Descriptive models
Fisher’s model (similar to Rational model)
Orientation – 定位，互相了解/明确问题
Conflict – 矛盾，多种方案
Emergence – 显现，达成共识
Reinforcement – 巩固，支持通过
Poole’s Multiple sequence model 多元次序模型
Based on the Systems Approaches
Unitary sequence path
Complex cyclic path
Solution-oriented path
DM is RARELY a linear and rational process
失效模式 Janis’s Ineffective small-group DM
Condition
Inside
Outside
Symptoms: groupthink
Illusion of invulnerability：无懈可击的错误
Illusion of morality：道德错觉
Stereotyping：怀有成见
Self-censorship：自我审查
Illusion of unanimity：一致的错觉
Direct pressure on dissidents：对异见者的直接压力
Reliance on self-appointed mind guards：对自身思想防备的依赖
Process
Outcome：e书p176; c书p160
有效模式 Effective small-group DM
Vigilant interaction – 警觉性互动
Analysis situation
Goals and objectives establishment
Evaluation
Cognitive conflict VS affective conflict
Dialectical inquiry 辩证式询问
Devil’s advocate 吹毛求疵
有效模式 Effective small-group DM
Functional theory of group DM
Symbolic convergence theory

决策参与 Participation Decision Making
Who involves the decision making?
The effects of the PDM
The models of the PDM
PDM VS democracy
PDM的作用 Effects of the PDM
Make employees less resistant to change：减少对变革的抵触性
Attitudinal：态度
Job satisfaction
Job involvement
Organizational commitment
Cognitive：认知度
Enhance utilization of info.
Greater employee understanding of decisions & organization
Behavioral：行为
Increase decision effectiveness
Improve productivity
情感模型 The affective model
Linkage among participation, job satisfaction and productivity.
Based on the Human Relationship Approach，人际关系学派
PDM → Satisfaction of Higher-order Needs → Work satisfaction → motivation → productivity
Happy workers are effective workers
认知模型 The cognitive model
Based on the Humane Resource Approach，人力资源学派
PDM → Info. Flow → Productivity → Satisfaction
Upward Info. Flow (bottom know the most to accomplish the work)
Decision made with higher-quality info.
Downward Info. Flow
Participator can better implement the decision
Satisfaction is a by-product
Busy hands are happy hands
决策参与和民主 PDM VS Democracy
When employee participate in management decision, it is democracy

决策的各学派评述 Approaches to the DM
See e书 P.187 c书 P.166
Classical: 理性、逻辑、自上而下
H. Relationships: 获得高层次需求的途径
H. Resource: 获得有价值信息和有效执行
System: 决策参与者互相依赖且受更大系统制约
Culture: 构成组织温文化的一套措施
Critical: 一个控制过程，助长霸权
Conflict Management Processes
第十章 冲突管理过程
冲突假设 Assumption about Conflict
Conflict generally bad, some conflict are good, some SIDES of the conflict are good.
冲突来源 Sources of Conflict
Incompatible goals：目标不相容性
Interdependent：互相依赖性
Interaction：相互作用
Communication constitutes the essence of conflict
冲突的定义 Conceptualizing the conflict
The interaction of interdependent people who perceive opposition of goals, aims, and value, and who see the other party as potentially interfering with the realization of these goals.
At least 2 parities
Involve communication
冲突的各个层面 Levels of conflict
Interpersonal
Intra-group
Inter-group
Intra-organizational
Inter-organizational
Person VS organization
冲突的类型 Types of conflict
Destructive conflict 摧毁性的
Productive conflict 建设性的
Substantive conflict 真实的
Emotional conflict 感情的
Content conflict 内容性的
Relationship conflict 权力争夺性的
组织冲突的过程 Phases of Conflict
Latent conflict ↓潜在的
The conditions are always there
Perceived conflict ↓可察觉的
Know something wrong
Felt conflict ↓可感知的
Absolutely, take action
Manifest conflict ↓外化
No manifest conflict, no conflict
Conflict aftermath 后果
冲突管理之 Conflict Resolution Style
Concern for self VS concern for others
Avoidance 回避
Accommodation 迎合
Competition 竞争
Collaboration 合作
Compromise 妥协
冲突管理之 Bargaining & Negotiation
A formal activity
Distributive bargaining
Win-lose strategy (competition)
Communication: withheld info., deception, learn other’s
Integrative bargaining
Win-win strategy (collaboration)
Communication: identify problems, clarifying misconception, signaling needs and negotiating.
冲突管理之 Third Party Solution
Inquisitor，调查者
Judge，仲裁者
Mediator/advisor，调停者/建议者
Motivator，促进者
Investigator，调研者
Restructurer，组织改造者
Problem solver，问题解决者
Procedural marshal，程序规范者
冲突管理影响因素 Influences on the Conflict management process
Personal factors: personality
Relational factors
Power: supervisor VS subordinate
Co-orientation 共同取向模型 c书 p183
Agreement
Perceived agreement
Accuracy
Group and organizational factors：整合组织结构/保持部门之间沟通
Culture and climate(思潮）
冲突的另一视角Traditional model and Alternative model of conflict
Exchange
Feminist model
冲突管理的各学派评述 Approaches to the Conflict Process
See e书 P.212 c书 P.185
Classical: 传播中断，第三方控制处理
H. Relationships: 要求避免和妥协
H. Resource: 组织成熟发展的途径，鼓励合作
System: 可以加强或减弱的活动循环
Culture: 文化上相异
Critical: 鼓励冲突，解放途径
Part D Emerging Processes
第四部分 新兴过程
最新推到前沿的过程
Processes of Emotion in the Workplace
第十一章 压力和社会支持过程
概念
压力模型：E.P.248/C.P.194
TYPE A：C.P.197
移情/传播/心力交瘁模型：E.P.253/C.P.201
Emotion 与工作及工作关系
Emotion Rules and Intelligence
压力源 Stressor
 Workload工作量
质&量的过重 太难、太多
Role Conflict 角色冲突
两个或两个以上的角色要求之间的相互抵触
Role Ambiguity 角色模糊
角色要求的不确定性
心力交瘁 Burnout
Emotional Exhaustion 情绪上筋疲力尽
Lack of personal accomplishment 缺乏个人成就感
Depersonalization 个性丧失

A type person
Hardiness 耐劳性
后果 Outcomes
Work satisfaction
Commitment 尽职尽责
Turnover
Communication as a cause of burnout
Communication load 传播量
Speed 传播速度
Complex 传播信息的复杂度
Overload & Underload
移情/传播/心力交瘁 Empathy, Communication, Burnout
Emotional Contagion 感染式
Empathic Concern 关注式
Detached Concern 公正关注
Coping with Burnout
Problem-focused coping：直接针对原因
Appraisal-focused coping：改变对压力状况的看法
Emotion-centered coping：解决心力交瘁带来的后果
PDM for coping
Recall: cognitive model & attitudinal mode
Role conflict and ambiguity
More value
Greater sense of influence and control
Social support for coping
Emotional support
Informational support
Instrumental support
压力的各学派评述 Approaches to the emotion
See e书 P.258 c书 P.206
Classical: 螺丝钉
H. Relationships: 提供感情支持，提升雇员自信心
H. Resource: PDM，增强其控制力
System: 一个神经控制过程
Culture: 员工价值观和组织期望
Critical: 不良霸权的体现
Organizational Diversity Processes
第十二章 多元化管理过程
多元化 Diversity
Gender
Ethnicity 种族
Disability
Sexual orientation

Glass ceiling 隐形封顶
Career-primary & career-and-family
原因之实际差异 Actual differences
No empirical evidence
原因之歧视 Stereotyping and Discrimination
Prejudice：偏见
Negative attitude
Discrimination：歧视
Observable behavior
Stereotyping
Using the typical pattern to judge the individual

原因之系统障碍 Relational barriers in Org. systems
Limited access or exclusion from informal communication networks
Difficult for establishing mentor-protégé relationship 师徒关系
Tokenism 象征主义
Type of work experience may hamper: high visibility
多元化组织的描述
First-generation affirmative action↓
Second-generation affirmative action ↓
Multicultural organization
Cox’s dimensions for description
Acculturation 文化适应
Structural integration 结构整合
Informal integration 非正式整合
Cultural bias 文化偏见
Organizational identification
Inter-group conflict

Dominant culture and minority culture:
Assimilation 同化
Separatism 分离
Pluralism 复合
多元化组织的机遇Opportunities
Cost
Resource
Marketing
Creativity
Problem-solving
Systems flexibility: fluid
多元化组织的挑战 Challenges
Negative impact of diversity management program
Affirmative action
Sexual harassment
Balancing work and home
多元化组织管理 Managing
Organization culture
HR management systems (Bias free)
Higher career involvement of women
Heterogeneity in Race/Ethnicity/Nationality
Education programs
Cultural differences
Mind-sets about diversity
多元化组织的各学派评述 Approaches to the diversity
See e书 P.280 c书 P.225
Classical: 反对
H. Relationships: 不鼓励不限制
H. Resource: 受到鼓励
System: 适应急剧环境变化的重要途径
Culture: 文化交汇
Critical:亚文化对主流文化，如何维持霸权及被边缘化
Technological Processes
第十三章 技术过程
Types of Org. Comm. technology
Technologies must be used by MASS
Technologies cost money
Type of technologies
Email
IM
Voice mail
Fax
Audio and video conferencing
Computer conferencing
MIS
GDSS
WWW
Networked computer
Wireless networks
Differences from the tradition
Faster transmission
Covers more geographic locations: save money
Interactive
Asynchronous 同步
Flexibility in selecting addresses
Memory/storage/retrieval
媒介富裕度模型 The media Richness Theory
Daft and Lengel
Premise: able to use
Purpose: explain the effective ways to using media
Independent variables:
The characteristics of message: Task ambiguity or negative
The characteristics of channel: Media richness: rich VS lean (from face-to-face to BBS)
Dependent variable:
Choice of media: effective
社会信息处理模型 The social info. Processing model
A theory including everything is a bad theory

双重能力模型 The Dual-Capacity Model
Data-carrying capacity
Symbol-carrying capacity
The choice of media depends on dual capacity

技术影响 Effects of Org. comm. technology
On communication content
On communication patterns
Increase in overall communication quantity
Increase in upward communication
More diverse contacts
Greater equality in group interaction
On organizational structure
Distributed work
Telecommuting
Flextime
Virtual office
On communication outcome
Leadership emergence inhibited?
Decrease in critical thinking and creativity
技术的各学派评述 Approaches to the technologies
See e书 P.303 c书 P.259
Classical: 工具论
H. Relationships: 对员工态度影响
H. Resource: 提高组织效率，发掘员工潜能
System: 联结系统的工具
Culture: 文化的象征性现实和传播媒介
Critical: 民主化渠道